Safeguarding Essay Example

Safeguarding Essay Outline key legislation and regulations which govern safeguarding adults work. In this part of the assignment I will be stating the main key points of each piece of legislation and how it is applied in practice. Safeguarding Vulnerable Adults thesis piece of legislation was introduced on the 8th November 2006, the whole idea of this act is to protect adults who are at risk of abuse due to a vulnerability. For example, someone with Down syndrome may be more at risk of getting abused due to their lack of social skills and knowledge. The key points of this legislation are? Every employee needs a CRY/DBS check, especially within a health and social care environment. This can prevent abusive situations from occurring. Every single workplace has their policies and procedures to make sure that they follow this act. Rehabilitation of Offenders Act teethe rehabilitation of offenders act 1974 of the I-J Parliament enables some criminal convictions to be ignored after a rehabilitation period. Key points of this legislation include: For adults, the rehabilitation period is 5 years for most non-custodial sentences. For a young offender- under the age of 18, the rehabilitation period is generally half that or adults. Prison sentences of more than 2 h years can never been spent. The rehabilitation period is determined by the sentence, and starts from the date of the conviction. After this, if there has been no further conviction the conviction is spent. The Ex offender may not have to mention what they have done whilst applying for a job. Http://www. Legislation. Gob. UK/gap/1974/53 21907521653500Depending on the conviction, it depends on how much time is spent: How is this applied in practice? We will write a custom essay sample on Safeguarding specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Safeguarding specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Safeguarding specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The rehabilitation offenders act protects offenders from discrimination when applying for a Job due to their previous records. It also makes it possible for them to lead a normal life, particularly if they have served their sentence and are desperate to put the past behind them. The Police Act 1997 The police act was introduced in 1997. This was a result of the Danceable massacre which took place in 1996. The Danceable massacre took place in a school where a man walked into a school and shot 16 children and a teacher in the space of three minutes. This was the reason the police act was introduced, purely so massacres like these cannot happen anymore. No person is allowed to carry a firearm without a license. Another reason as to why the police act was introduced was so police have access to computers, mobile phones and cameras. This is in case the police think someone is suspicious, they may be able to back it up with proof, for example, if someone is holding indecent content on their computer/laptop the police will be able to find out and search the computer to find out the proof theyre looking for. This act will help to safeguard adults in the future by making the public aware that the police can easily access phones, computers and cameras. Therefore people are less likely to o the crime as they are more at risk of being caught. The Sexual Offences Act 1976 The act was introduced in 1976. This was because the government wanted tougher sentences against adult sex offences. The act complements the new criminal Justice act, under serious sex attacks will receive mandatory life sentences. The key point of this legislation is to protect vulnerable adults, make them feel safe, have regular CRY/ DBS checks. If an individual has been put on the sexual offenders list then they could be on there for the rest of their life, or up to five years depending on how their court case goes. A few bigger points are: In 2003 the sexual offences act changed so people can even be convicted from having horrifically inappropriate photos to flashing or even rape and sexual harassment. People convicted of a sexual offence must tell the police about their living arrangements and if they are planning to move they must inform the police so the police can investigate if the home is suitable. If they want to leave the country they must get permission although in most circumstances countries will not allow them in anyway. Http://www. Cups. Gob. UK/news/ fact_sheets/sexual_offences/ It makes new provisions about sexual offences, their reversion and the protection of children from harm from other sexual acts and connected purposes. This then means that sex offenders cannot work with vulnerable adults or children, if they were to apply for a unsuitable Job, they could be convicted. Care Standards Act nationally minimum standards were published in 2003 following the care standards act 2000. They form the basis of the inspection of a care setting to protect a patient from being abused/neglected. Different versions of national minimum standards exist for each category of a care setting: Care home for older people (65+) Care home for adults (18-65) Domiciliary care homemade. Nurse agencies Adult placement schemes This law replaced a law called the registered homes act 1984 which regulated nursing in residential homes. Its purpose is to have control of the whole concept of care and to regulate those who provide it. They will make regular checks to ensure that all the laws and policies/procedures are being followed. Care services it covers include independent fostering agencies, domiciliary social care providers, residential family centers and boarding schools. How is this applied in practice? Robust reoccurred should be in place for responding to suspicion or evidence of abuse or neglect to ensure the safety and protection of individuals. Mental Health Act 1983 The mental health act was first introduced in 1983 (further amended in 2007) and sets out how you can be treated if you have a mental disorder, and what your rights are. It was introduced to stop any person getting sectioned, to protect peoples health and also to make sure all your rights are protected. Constantinople have different types of mental disorders and they can be admitted to hospital against their will under this act. This includes people with severe mental impairment, psychopathic disorder or mental illness. Patients are only sectioned if they are a threat to themselves or others. For a patient to be sectioned it must be approved by two doctors and a social worker, even in some cases a close relative. How does this help stop abuse? In the past people could be sectioned by someone who disliked them or wanted them out of the way, due to this law, no one can be sectioned unless they need to be. Mental Capacity Act 2005 The mental capacity act 2005 came into force in England and Wales in 2007. This act revised the legal framework for acting and making decisions on behalf of vulnerable individuals who lack the mental capacity to make particular decisions, for example if somebody is really ill, it may be turning of a life support machine. This act applies to anyone aged 16 or over. It protects people with mental health problems as well as people with dementia, learning disabilities, strokes or brain injuries. People with mental health issues may find it difficult to make decisions some or even all of the time. How does the act support vulnerable people? Protecting those who cannot make their own decisions Making it clear who can make decisions on the persons behalf Allowing people to make some decisions in advance for themselves(living will) Providing a new service to support those who have no one to help them make decisions. Planning ahead. This act also states that anyone can plan ahead for a time when they may lack mental capacity by using a lasting power of attorney. Lasting power of attorney is someone who make decisions on their behalf. This includes decisions about property and financial affairs as well as health and personal welfare decisions. Disability Discrimination Act 1995 amended 2005 The disability discrimination act 1995 aims to end the discrimination that faces many people with disabilities. This act has been significantly extended, including by the disability discrimination order 2006. It was introduced to ensure that those with a disability have equal opportunities in everyday situations. The key points of this law are, it now gives people with disabilities rights in the areas of: Employment Education Access to goods, facilities and services, including larger private clubs and transport services. Buying or renting land/property Functions of public bodies How is it put into practice to help safeguard adults? To address some of the practical difficulties that these barriers present, the disability legislation, unlike other anti-discrimination legislation creates a positive duty on employers and service providers to make reasonable adjustment to their policies and premises where reasonable and appropriate, such as ramps and lifts. AS/ For this part of the task, you are required to demonstrate your knowledge by producing a grid that identifies and outlines w working strategies and procedures in place to help safeguard vulnerable adults. What is a law? A law is something that has been set in stone and will not change for any particular resonates is a strategy? A strategy is how you do something but this also depends on what setting you are in. Different working strategies may be different for each care home Guidance Brief outline How does it help protect the individuals? The protection of vulnerable adults scheme for adult placement (OVA) The Protection of Vulnerable Adults Scheme (OVA) has been introduced to help minimize abuse and involves checking records to assess the suitability of people to work as careers for vulnerable adults. This helps to protect individuals as they know that there is legalization and procedures put into place and therefore know that theyre safe from abuse. Every time I go into a care setting money is missing, as a result of this it gets reported each time and they soon establish that it is the same person who is being suspected as money is going missing at the same time every time a certain person is in. As a result of this there is now enough evidence that it is them stealing money and they are convicted and lose their license This helps to prevent financial abuse in a care home. No secrets- Dept. Of health guidelines 2000 / Review of no secrets guidance 2008 This law suggests that we do not keep secrets and if we suspect that this is happening we MUST report it and they will send investigators in. Dignitaries. Org This will prevent abuse in a work place as if somebody knows about it is their place to say, therefore it will hopefully stop abuse. Safeguarding adults- a national framework for good practice and outcomes in adult protection work 2005 This law states what level of care should be in place and that everybody should be treated fairly. This helps to rote individuals as they all know theyre being treated the same and have the same rights as anybody else Codes of practice for nursing and social work EGG. BASS, NC and SEC This law states that you have license to practice. You will be strike off if you do something wrong/bad. It also proves that you are who you say you are, regular training is given to update records. Youre unable to accept gifts from people youre working with as it could be seen as offensive. This will help protect individuals as if they know that youre being regularly trained and are up to date with information they may feel safer and secure under your care. Multi-agency working- decision making forums, keeping records, support planning and single assessment process. This is about different agencies working together to find out if a certain person is being abused, they communicate with everyone and working together helps to ensure that no body is abused. They also share information to come to a decision on what is best for the person. Having more than one agency looking out for you may make the individual feel worth something and as though they are safe and protected from anything in harms way. Staff training The company will pay for staff training and this MUST be regular. They will learn first aid, manual handling and the correct ways to move people in and out of beds and certain places. Staff being trained gives them trust from individuals, if theyre being trained properly then the individuals know that they are doing their Job properly Role of care quality commission (ICQ) This law is a set of inspectors that are there to do regular checks to ensure that you are doing your Job properly. If youre doing it right you will get a grade. Otherwise you will be told what to do and have another check-up 6 months later, if things have not improved you will more than likely be put out of business. This helps to protect individuals in a care setting as regular checks to make sure the home is running properly will make them feel as though they are important. They will know that they are safe as if something is wrong ICQ will pick up on it and something will get done about it http://www. ICQ. Org. UK/ Whistle blowing This is about reporting something that you see, it could be about how a member of staff are treating another person. If someone has trust in a care worker then they could tell them if anything is wrong, this could then send an alert to a member of staff and something could be done about it Complaint procedures Every organization has a complaints service, this is because people have the right to complain about something if they feel it Is not right or suitable. If a family member is worrying about the service user or has a complaint then this service will give them the opportunity to be able to complain and get their views put forward. MM/ Describe legalization, regulations, working strategies and procedures used in health and social care to reduce two types of abuse. Christine could be subject to physical abuse, to prevent this safeguarding adults 2006 could help as the law states that all careers should have a up to date DBS. This should minimize the chances of physical abuse in the care setting. Care standards act also outlines the standard of care that must be given in a home, this prevents abuse as if anything is below the standard they will either have serious consequences or will be completely shut down. OVA means that all staff has a ova check to make sure that they have not been previously convicted involving abuse of any kind. If they have this person will not be allowed to work with Christine. This will minimize the chances of her being abused as if they have not abused before they may not do it this time. No secrets this means that if other careers can see abuse happening they MUST report it. If the abu ser knows that someone will tell someone else that theyre abusing, they are less likely to do so. This could prevent her being abused as if she is being abused and someone knows about it they could tell someone else and it can be prevented as soon as possible. Christine could also be prone to financial abuse. The Mental capacity act could help Christine as she could have brain damage and be unable to make her own decisions and therefore needs a power of attorney. Having this could minimize the chances of uncial abuse as people would know who would be abusing her and be able to do something about it. As Christine has the mind of a child, if somebody tells her to do something like give them her money, she will more than likely do so. To prevent this, if somebody notices that there is money going missing they can use the police act to check her money going in and out, they can check all of her computers she has accessed to see if her online banking has been used, hopefully this way they will be able to track down the money and the person who stole it. This act can also prevent there things happening to Christine, it will prevent abusers taking possessions, benefits, inheritance and pressure in connection with wills.

Actual film Essays

Actual film Essays Actual film Essay Actual film Essay Arthur Miller uses characters and action to explore ideas about a number of different qualities and emotions. He uses John and Elizabeth, for example, to show the love that can break through if you try really hard at a relationship. He uses honesty, through Proctor to show the good and the bad consequences that can arise out of telling the truth and out of lying. He uses betrayal through Proctor also; by Proctor having an affair with Abigail. This shows how betrayal can rip apart a marriage with one stupid mistake. He shows greed and power through Danforth, by Danforth saying no postponement to the hangings just so his reputation wouldnt be lost. He shows honour, through Giles, because Giles didnt answer aye or nay to being a witch. His final words were more weight and then he died. He kept up to his reputation as being funny and by living up to his name.  Another way Miller connects through to the audience is by using a number of dramatic devices. I am now going to have a look at some of the different techniques and how he does this. Miller uses a number of different techniques to build and release tension. One of these techniques is leaving you on cliff hangers. He did this with Acts 1,2 and 3! With Act 1 Abigail and Betty had just made accusations of whom they had seen with the devil, Act 2 Elizabeth had just been taken away, and Act 3, Proctor has just confessed and Hale had quit the court! He uses short staccato sentences to build up tension, like in Act 4 Elizabeth says, Giles is dead so it is short and powerful. That way we feel more of an impact. Also in Act 2 where John and Elizabeth first start talking, they are saying only what they need to, not going into any detail. Proctor says are you well today? And Elizabeth says, I am whereas she could have gone into more detail such as yes Im fine thanks, it was probably just a passing cold, and you? She kept it as short and sweet as possible, almost telling the audience that they couldnt have a long flowing conversation because she suspected him. However, I found that having watched the film, seen it performed and having read the play script, the most dramatic was the actual film. I think this is because you can use devices such as camera shots and angles and music to increase the tension. There were also a lot of different scenes in the film that I hadnt seen in the play. I think this is because it would be too hard in an actual play to move the scene props around in such a small space of time! In the film I also thought that it made it more dramatic by making them say the lords prayer just before they were hung and the number of voices gradually decreasing as one by one they got pushed off. I really didnt like, however, the fact that John didnt get to say Amen. I think that links back to the unfairness and cruelty of the time. At the end of Act 3 Miller has left us on the edge of our seats, but as we enter Act 4, Miller uses the humour of Tituba and Sarah to make our tension decrease again. In act 4 our tension goes up and down like a yo-yo with Proctors indecisive mind, we can never relax! By the end of Act 4 our tension is at its climax, especially with the stage direction the final drum roll crashes, then heightens violently, Hale weeps in frantic prayer, and the new sun is pouring in upon her face, and the drums rattle like bones in the morning air. Another technique Miller uses, is dramatic irony. He uses this to create huge amounts of tension, such as the affair between Proctor and Abigail. When John and Elizabeth were alone together for the first time in Act 2, tension was high because we knew, and John knew what he had done, but Elizabeth didnt. He uses pauses to create a sense of someone finding it hard to say something; they might be scared, or even nervous.  Arthur Miller uses language with layers of different meanings. I am now going to have a look at some of the sentences he has put together and whether or not they have more than one meaning. In Act 1, John and Abigail are left alone. They use words referring to hot and cold and animals to talk about sex indirectly. This is because it just wasnt a thing you would talk about! For example sweated like a stallion this could also mean just sex and no love, like animals.  Abigail says, You are no wintry man this could mean he is not emotionless and frigid, he is hot blooded and passionate. Unlike Elizabeth who she says is a cold, snivelling woman. Abigail is trying to say that John is the complete opposite to Elizabeth. She is wondering why John would want to be with her? She is so different and doesnt satisfy him like Abigail does.  Throughout the play Miller uses metaphorical language. In Act 2 John says I will fall like an ocean on that court I think this means that the court will be overthrown and will have a small amount of power compared to what John will have.  Arthur Miller uses this language for a number of different reasons. It may be to enliven ideas, or by making a link through language to another context and most of all to make the audience use their imaginations and think about the play, rather than just sitting down, watching it and never thinking about it again.

The differences between the English and Spanish colonies in the new Essay

The differences between the English and Spanish colonies in the new world - Essay Example There is need to compare the two colonial masters in an effort to identify differences. Religion played an important role in the administration of the colonial territories. Both masters embraced Christianity. The Spanish rule however integrated Christianity in their administration. On the other hand the British acknowledged Christianity but had no role in administration. The Spanish rule ensured that Catholic was the only denomination in their territories. The British encourage Protestantism as their form of religion (Elliot 184). Religion in both colonial territories was used as a tool of strengthening their territory as a common agenda made user each territory shared the same religious ideologies. Religion then played an important role in these colonies as it influenced indigenous cultures. The British colonies exercised tolerance as other denominations where allowed into the region (Elliot 186). The Spanish on the other hand ensured the modern religion was the only religion practices in their territories which were different in British colonies where indigenous cult ure was tolerated. Administration was an important element in the two territories as it was a tool that differentiated the two colonies in the ‘New World’. According to Lange et al (2006) Spanish colonies experienced direct rule. This meant that rulers where appointed by the royal administration in Spain. The rulers answered directly to Spain any action was to be undertaken with a directive from Spain. The direct rule was enhanced by the Spanish government to sponsor settlers in their new territories (Strayer, 633). The Imperial companies that enhanced exploration of the ‘New World’ by the British meant that there rule was independent and formed governments different from the royal rule in Britain. The two systems meant that the indigenous individuals where to be the subjects

Serology Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Serology - Research Paper Example The DNA can be a very powerful source of evidence. However, there are debates about the uses serology has been put to and in recent years these debates have become more rancorous. One of the most radical transformations in evidence collection in recent years in the criminal justice system is the use of DNA. Considered by some to be a silver bullet, conclusively proving guilt, DNA’s significance can be hard to defend against and may create an insurmountable burden for an innocent defendant. It is documented that there is a high level of error in laboratories, and it is possible for DNA samples to be switched. This is an important consideration when evaluating the uses of serology. An accident like this combined with circumstantial evidence would almost certainly result in a guilty verdict. Likewise, sophisticated criminals have been known to plant false DNA evidence at the crime scene in order to shift attention away from themselves. This are important things to keep in mind when considering

Peak moment anaysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Peak moment anaysis - Essay Example The core value of the real life is to help the community. According to Loehr, (2015), values are important not only for work but also they reflect on a daily, at work or at home who we are (para 5). This whole approach to values as a person helps us become a better leader in all aspects of life not only in our careers. As a leader values will give you a sense of life and lead a purposeful life. As a person, I have to make a decision to live a life with purpose. This decision will significantly affect my job and future life. It is easier to find my values when I have stronger root of core values. Values are connected both personal and social. To fulfill one, the other is also fulfilled. The knowledge of values contributes to individual development, a sense of commitment, a better moral character and how to respond to the aspects of life. Personal and social values make one to have self-knowledge and be able to understand the needs, rights, feeling, and experiences of others and relate them to the current environment (Gulla, p.265). My values shall be personal so that I do not replicate them for others. Sometimes people tend to look at others and copy what they do because they think the reason they are succeeding is through the values they have (RÃ ¸nnow-Rasmussen, p.2). Four years ago, I left to LA to reflect and find my core values. As an international student who takes ESL, most of my time was consumed at the airport because of my improper English. Additionally, I had to waste three more hours to catch a taxi. I admit that it was because of not only poor English but also the fear that I felt when I was trying to speak it. Finally, I found a taxi that would take me to my hotel. It was such an exhausting ride since this taxi had to stop at more than ten hotels to drop other customers. However, when I reached the hotel that I reserved, I saw my future. Although it was around 11 PM at that time, the view

Current cognitive models of PTSD

Current cognitive models of PTSD The treatment literature of the past twenty years reflects an enormous interest in discovering the most effective psychological therapy for clients with a diagnosis of posttraumatic stress disorder, PTSD. The overall aim of this paper is to critically evaluate current cognitive models of PTSD and literature on the effectiveness of cognitive behavioural therapies to treat this disorder based on these models. Definitions of PTSD In the Fourth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, DSM-IV (American Psychiatric Association, 1994) trauma is defined as: (a) The person experienced, witnessed or was confronted with an event that involved actual or perceived threat to life or physical integrity; and (b) the persons emotional response to this event included horror, helplessness or intense fear. Foa and Meadows (1997, p. 450). In DSM-IV psychological symptoms of PTSD are categorised into three cluster symptoms: re-experiencing, avoidance/numbing and increased arousal, which arise after the person is exposed to a traumatic stressor. The recurrent re-experiencing symptoms e.g. flashbacks, nightmares, intrusive thoughts, have been considered the hallmark of PTSD (e.g. Foa Rothbaurn, 1992). The second cluster includes avoidance of trauma-related stimuli and numbing of general responsiveness e.g. deliberately avoiding trauma-related stimuli and symptoms of emotional numbing (Foa, Hearst-Ikeda, Perry, 1995; Litz, 1993). The latter are considered distinguishing features of PTSD (Foa Meadows, 1997). The third symptom cluster includes increased arousal e.g. hypervigilance, exaggerated startle response, difficulty sleeping and irritability (APA, 1994). Current Government Guidelines on the treatment of PTSD Determining effective and efficient treatments for PTSD has become a priority in light of the conditions prevalence and the many techniques and interventions available. The National Institute for Clinical Excellence, NICE, reviewed the most robust outcome research and produced guidelines, to inform and guide clinical practice for the psychological treatment of PTSID in adults (NICE, 2005). The guidelines were based on an independent, systematic, rigorous and multistage process of identifying, reviewing and appraising evidence for the effective treatment of PTSD. These guidelines conclude that individuals with PTSD should receive either trauma focused Cognitive Behavioural Therapy, TFCBT or Eye Movement Desensitisation and Reprocessing, EMDR. However, a distinction is made between single incident trauma and more complex presentations, and the guidelines suggest increasing the total number of sessions accordingly. Although the guidelines appear helpful for the treatment of single incid ent PTSD, they are arguably not as informative for treatment approaches for a large group of individuals with complex PTSD. This presents difficulties for the clinician and client in deciding the most effective therapeutic options. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) is the most extensively researched therapy for individuals with PTSD (Foa Meadows, 1997) and many studies support its efficacy in reducing symptom severity (e.g. Foa et al., 1995; Foa Jaycox, 1996; Foa, Rothbaurn, Riggs, Murdock, 1991; Resick Schnicke, 1992; Richards, Lovell, Marks, 1994; Thompson, Charlton, Kerry, Lee, Turner, 1995). However, CBT for PTSD encompasses diverse techniques. These include exposure procedures, cognitive restructuring procedures, and combinations of both these techniques. Exposure Therapy Exposure therapy is based on the premise that imaginal exposure (IE) to the trauma or feared situation, leads to symptom reduction. The theory argues prolonged activation of traumatic memories leads to emotional processing of the affective information, habituation of anxiety and integration of corrective information (Foa et al., 1995). Numerous studies have demonstrated that treatment based on exposure therapy is efficacious in reducing PTSD (e.g. Foa et al., 1999; Frueh, Turner, Beidel, Mirabella, Jones, 1996; Keane, Fairbank, Cadell, Zimmering, 1989). Foa, Rothbaum, Riggs, and Murdoch (1991) investigated exposure therapy, stress inoculation (a type of Anxity Management Treatment, AMT), supportive counselling, and a non-treatment group in the treatment of PTSD as a result of rape. Clinical ratings of symptoms and standardized psychometric tests were examined before and after treatment as well as at a 3-month follow-up. The stress inoculation intervention showed greater results than the counselling and non-treatment conditions at post-test. However, at the follow-up, the individuals participating in exposure therapy showed more improvements of PTSD symptoms than individuals in the other groups. Research has investigated the efficiency of exposure therapy compared to different methods of treatment. For instance, Tarrier et al. (1999) investigated exposure therapy and cognitive therapy in the treatment of individuals with PTSD arising from several different traumatic incidents. The two groups demonstrated noteworthy decrease in PTSD symptoms that was still present at the 6-month follow up. Although results were positive for both groups, there was no non-treatment control against which these two active treatments could be evaluated. Similarly, Foa et al. (1999) compared exposure therapy to AMT and then combined the two treatments. These three groups were compared to a non-treatment control group. All three of these treatments effectively reduced symptoms of rape-related PTSD and resulted in functional improvement. There were no differences among the three treatment groups on outcome measures, but all three groups improved more than the non-treatment comparison group did. In a study that once again compared exposure therapy to cognitive therapy, Marks, Lovell, Noshirvani, Livanou, and Thrasher (1998) examined these two treatments alone and in combination in outpatients with PTSD secondary to a wide range of traumatic events. A relaxation therapy condition was employed as the primary comparison group. All three active treatment conditions showed significant improvement, and greater improvement than that observed in the relaxation group. The three active treatments did not differ from one another on the key outcome variables. Several investigations have advanced the field of PTSD treatment, even though the methodology utilized in the outcome study limited the conclusions that could be drawn. Frank and Stewart (1983) reported the effects of systematic desensitization on women who had been raped and who developed significant psychological symptomatology. Compared to an untreated comparison group, those women treated with graduated exposure improved most on a range of anxiety and depression symptom measures. Richards, Lovell, and Marks (1994) compared imaginal and in vivo exposure in a randomized study of survivors of diverse traumatic events. At the 12-month follow-up, patients reported consistent reductions in PTSD symptoms and improved social adjustment. These data further substantiate the effectiveness of exposure therapy for some individuals, and also suggest that improvements in symptoms are also reflected in critical domains of life functioning. In summary, the existing data support the use of exposure therapy in the treatment of PTSD. In a previous review of this literature, Solomon, Gerrity, and Muff, (1992), (Sited in Shapiro, 1995) derived the same conclusion from data available at that time. Similar conclusions were drawn by Otto, Penava, Pollack, and Smoller (1996) in a more recent review of the literature. In what may ultimately prove to be an important lesson for the treatment of individuals exposed to traumatic events, Foa, Hearst-Ikeda, and Perry (1995) examined the efficacy of a brief intervention to prevent the development of chronic PTSD. For women who had been recently raped, the authors developed a program based upon that which worked so well in earlier trials with chronic PTSD. Exposure therapy figured prominently in the package of treatments assembled. This package also included elements of education, breathing retraining, and cognitive restructuring. When individuals receiving the package were compared to a matched control group, this study found that at 2 months after intervention only 10% of the treated group met criteria for PTSD, while 70% of the untreated comparison group did. As information continues to grow on exposure therapy, there is a distinct need for studies to examine combinations of treatments, to employ measures that assess social and occupational functioning, and to address the impact of treatments on comorbid psychological conditions. Clearly, the available efficacy studies demonstrate the value of extending the use of exposure therapies to patients with PTSD. However future studies assessing the generalization of exposure therapy from laboratory trials to clinical settings would be particularly useful. When exposure therapy has been compared to other forms of cognitive therapy, such as cognitive restructuring (see below), it has proved to be more successful in reducing PTSD. Tarrier et al., (1999) compared Cognitive Therapy (CT) with imaginal exposure therapy (IE) for 72 people with chronic PTSD, and concluded that there was no significant difference between the two groups initially or at 12 month follow up. Participants recruited were obtained from a sample of referrals to primary and secondary mental health services and voluntary services, indicating that they were representative of a genuine clinical sample. However, 50% of the sample remained above clinical significance for PTSD symptoms after treatment was completed, although this dropped to 25% at six-month follow-up. This lack of improvement may have been influenced by participants failure to attend sessions regularly. Furthermore, those who did not show improvement rated the therapy as less credible and were rated as less m otivated by the therapist. Therefore, it is argued that motivation for therapy and regular attendance plays an important role in outcome of therapy regardless of treatment model. A further limitation of this study was that no control group was used and non-specific treatment factors and spontaneous remission could also account for the improvements in reported symptoms. Cognitive Restructuring Cognitive restructuring is based on the theory that identifying and modifying catastrophic and unrealistic interpretations of the traumatic experience leads to symptom reduction. Recent models have emphasised the importance of correcting cognitive distortions in the adaptive recovery of people following trauma (Ehlers Clarke, 2000). Ehlers, Clark, Hackmann, McManus, and Fennell (2005) utilized cognitive therapy based on the cognitive model of PTSD (see Ehlers Clarke, 2000). From this model, the aim of therapy is to modify excessively negative appraisals, correct the autobiographical memory disturbance and to remove the problematic behavioural and cognitive strategies. In a randomised controlled trial, twenty-eight participants who were referred to a community mental health team were diagnosed with PTSD. Fourteen participants were randomly allocated to immediate cognitive therapy or a 13-week waiting list condition. Those receiving cognitive therapy had 12 weekly treatment sessions, based on the Ehlers and Clarke (2000) model of trauma focused CBT. Participants completed self-report measures of PTSD symptoms, depression, anxiety and also completed the Sheehan Disability Scale (APA, 2000). Measures were completed pre and post treatment and at 6 month follow up. Results found that CT for PTSD was superior to a 3-m onth waiting list condition on measures of PTSD symptoms, disability and associated symptoms of anxiety and depression. This study had no dropouts, which is a significant improvement on other studies, which Yielded high dropout rates. (e.g. Tarrier et al., 1999). Participants displayed a positive change in cognitive appraisals. The Ehlers and Clarke (2000) model suggest that two other pathways of change, change in autobiographical memory of the trauma, and dropping of maintaining behaviours and cognitive strategies as integral in reducing symptoms of PTSD. Although the treatment addressed these other two factors, these have not been systematically measured, so it is difficult to conclude whether clients experienced a change in these two areas. Further analysis indicated that demographic, trauma and diagnostic variables did not predict treatment outcome, suggesting that the treatment is applicable to a wide range of trauma survivors. However, the degree in variation of trauma and small sample numbers suggests that this finding would not be present in a larger sample. Co-morbid depression and previous trauma history, which was present in over half the sample, did not negatively affect outcome. Combinations of therapy Resick and Schnicke (1992) have proffered a multidimensional behavioural treatment package for women who have rape-related PTSD. This package, entitled cognitive processing therapy (CPT), combines elements of exposure therapy, Anxiety Management Training (AMT), and cognitive restructuring. The cognitive therapy component of CPT involves addressing key cognitive distortions found among women who have been assaulted. In particular, these authors have designed interventions for addressing difficulties in safety, trust, power, self-esteem, and intimacy in the lives of survivors. In a preliminary evaluation of CPT, the authors compared outcomes at pre-treatment, post-treatment, 3 months follow-up, and 6 months follow-up for a treatment group and a non-treatment comparison group (no random assignment was used). On clinician ratings and psychometric inventories of PTSD, the individuals receiving CPT improved markedly. At the post-treatment assessment, impressively, none of the treated patie nts met criteria for PTSD. In a recently completed study, Resick, Nishith, and Astin (2000) reported on a comparison of CPT and exposure therapy in the treatment of rape-related PTSD. In general, the two treatments were equally effective and more effective than a non-treatment control condition. CPT did also seem to reduce comorbid symptoms of depression, as well as those of PTSD. Combination treatments that include an array of cognitive-behavioural strategies have the advantage of addressing multiple problems that people with PTSD may exhibit, as well as incorporating techniques that have considerable empirical support in the clinical literature. Keane, Fisher, Krinsley, and Niles (1994) described a treatment package including exposure therapy, AMT, and cognitive restructuring as central features of their approach to treating PTSD. This package employs a phase oriented approach to treating severe and chronic PTSD that includes the following six phases: (1) behavioural stabilization; (2) trauma education; (3) AMT; (4) trauma focus work; (5) relapse prevention skills; and (6) aftercare procedures. Although this approach has clinical appeal, it wasnà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢t until psychologists Fecteau and Nicki (1999) examined such a package in a randomized clinical trial for PTSD secondary to motor vehicle accidents that the impact of a combination package such as that proposed by Keane et al. (1994) was assessed. Their intervention consisted of trauma education, relaxation training, exposure therapy, cognitive restructuring, and guided behavioural practice. Patients were randomly assigned to the intervention or to a non-treatment comparison group and received some 8à ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬10 sessions of individualized treatment. The results of the intervention were successful as measured by clinical ratings, self-report questionnaires, and a laboratory-based psycho-physiological assessment procedure. Described by the authors as clinically and statistically significant, these treatment effects were maintained at the 6-month follow-up assessment. Bryant, Moulds, Guthrie, Dang, and Nixon (2003) studied the effects of IE alone or IE with CR in the treatment of PTSD. They hypothesised that CR combined with IE would result in greater PTSD symptom reduction than exposure alone, which in turn would have greater benefits than a supportive counselling condition. Fifty-eight civilian trauma survivors, diagnosed with PTSD as measured by Clinician Administered. PTSD Scale, version 2, CAPS-2, (Blake et al., 1995) were randomly allocated to one of the three conditions. Each participant received eight weekly 90-minute sessions of either IE, CR and IE or supportive counselling. Participants completed assessments at pre and post treatment and 6 month follow up. These measured PTSD symptoms and psychopathology. Forty-five participants completed treatment and analysis indicated that dropouts had higher scores for depression, avoidance and higher catastrophic cognitions than those who completed. Results indicated that participants receiving bot h IE and IE/CR had greater reductions in PTSD symptoms and anxiety than supportive counselling (SC). The major finding of this study was that therapy involving IE and CR leads to greater reductions in CAPS-2 intensity scores than therapy involving IE alone. Furthermore, those receiving IE/CR, but not IE alone, reported fewer avoidance, depression and catastrophic cognitions than those receiving SC. The results from this study indicated that the combination of IE and CR are effective in reducing symptoms of PTSD. It can be argued that the reasons why IE/CR may have been more effective than augmented treatments in the past (e.g. Foa et al., 1999) was that the study carefully controlled for the amount of time actively spent on each treatment component. Furthermore, participants were instructed on CR before commencing IE so they understood the rationale behind the techniques prior to addressing the strong emotional components of IE. This may have increased their understanding and belief that it was a credible treatment approach. The finding that CR enhanced the treatment gains of IE may have been mediated by several possible mechanisms. IE and CR may involve common elements, including processing of emotional memories, integration of corrective information and development of self-mastery (Marks, 2000). Combining both interventions may provide the individual with greater opportunity to benefit. CR may have lead to greater symptom reduction as it specifically addressed identification and modification of maladaptive cognitions that may contribute to maintenance of PTSD and associated problems (Ehlers Clarke, 2000). Paunovic and Ost (2001), compared treatment outcome data for CBT and exposure therapy for sixteen refugees with PTSD. The authors excluded those who became too distressed in the initial interview, expressed a lack of confidence in the therapist or were misusing alcohol or drugs. Results indicated there was no significant difference between participants completing CBT or exposure therapy, being simila r to Tarrier et als (1999) findings. Criticisms of Paunovic and Ost (2001)s study are that participants did not use a self-report trauma measure, so although results are positive, there is no clear analysis of whether participants felt their trauma symptoms decreased as a result of the treatment. Further, it is not possible to generalise these findings to traumatised refugees in general, as this work is unique. Working with the use of an interpreter raises several ethical and sensitive issues, as the participant must be able to develop a therapeutic alliance with the therapist and trust the interpreter (Tribe, 2007). It could be argued that participants may have been experiencing a greater degree of trauma, not least because they had not yet learned the native language. Discussion The most effective CBT programs appear to be those that rely on repeated exposure to the trauma memory (Foa et al., 1999; Foa et al., 1991; Foa Rothbaum, 1992) on cognitive restructuring of the meaning of the trauma, (Ehlers Clarke, 2000) or a combination of these methods, (Resick Schnicke, 1992). Importantly, studies have concluded that trauma focused CBT is more effective than supportive counselling (Blanchard et al., 2003; Bryant et al., 2003). Whilst the studies reviewed have helpfully added to our understanding of PTSD there are numerous limitations of the applications of the findings. One in particular is an over-reliance on non-clinical samples of participants such that many claims of clinically effective therapy have been made from research with participants who were not within mental health systems, and despite having PTSD symptoms had not actively sought treatment. In addition, dropout rates in studies are high, particularly for those studies that did not use a clinical sample. This might have skewed the evidence particularly with approaches that used exposure-based therapy. Furthermore, most of the studies reviewed screened out those individuals experiencing the greatest amount of distress, avoidance and co-morbidity. Therefore results are biased towards those clients who were able to tolerate treatment and whose symptoms were not as chronic. Indeed, inclusion and exclusion criteria appear to have a great impact on outcome of treatment. For example, studies with a strict inclusion criteria (e.g. no co-morbidity, substance misuse, self harm) appear to have significant improvements, whilst other studies i.e. Kubany et al., (2003), allowed participants to continue with other therapy while embarking on their therapy. This makes it methodologically difficult to ascertain exactly what has been effective in reducing PTSD symptoms. As inclusion and exclusion criteria are idiosyncratic across studies, it makes it difficult to draw general conclusions regarding treatment effectiveness with a clinical population across studies. Studies often chose to focus therapy on identified groups, e.g. police officers. However, clients who experience PTSD do not form a homogeneous group and further, the symptoms experienced may be diverse even within a sample of individuals who have experienced the same trauma. Treatment studies often do not control for other factors that may be important contributing factors in outcome such as the role of education, quality of the therapeutic relationship, therapeutic alliance and other nonspecific factors. The literature was generally from American, British or European sources although clearly trauma is intercultural. This raises issues about how different cultures interpret PTSD, an essentially Western concept, and also whether the treatments advocated would be effective cross-culturally. Previous research has strongly indicated that PTSD is not an appropriate term to use in non-western situations (Summerfield, 1997), hence therapeutic approaches need to account for this. It is not clear in the majority of the research when the participant experienced the trauma, and at what point therapy started. Frequently these characteristics are omitted from studies, therefore making it difficult to compare effectiveness of studies. It is important to consider the types of clients who have been represented in the research and to look at whether it is representative of those who seek treatment. Finally, very little has been reported on the impact of other difficulties an individual is experiencing as PTSD can have a wide ranging impact on an individuals quality of life and functioning and most often clients have more complex presentations. Only very few studies reviewed controlled for this variable (see Ehlers et al., 2005). This is an inherent difficulty when completing research with a trauma population as within research it is important to obtain a sample that have a similar degree of difficulties in order to assess treatment efficacy. Several papers have evaluated different types of therapy according to particular groups. However, it appears that one size does not fit all in relation to PTSID. In particular the issues of culture and gender are of importance (see Liebling Ojiambo-Ochieng, 2000; Sheppard, 2000). Individual formulations of presenting problems and contexts, which informs therapy that is adapted to suit individual clients needs, may in fact be more helpful. It remains important to consider individual differences and client choice when offering trauma therapy. Trauma therapy outcome studies are limited by the fact that sufferers usually have other mental health problems alongside PTSD such as depression or social anxiety. Evaluation of effective treatment of trauma survivors therefore might need to go beyond medical diagnostic categories as most of the research excludes clients with co-morbid problems. A multifaceted intervention, based on clients own views, which addressed these other difficulties, may help reduce relapse and improve long-term efficacy of any PTSD treatment. As outlined in the methodological limitations section, much of the research reviewed has not used a genuine clinical sample, there are high dropout rates, widely variable inclusion and exclusion criteria, and the heterogeneity of PTSD has perhaps not yet been accounted for. It is therefore difficult to ascertain what is specifically helpful or effective within the treatment components. This seems to be the next area for consideration in research. Further research into the optimal length of treatment and timing of therapy, the effect of co-morbidity and the differing effects of individual and group therapy approaches for traumatised clients are required. Further controlled research is needed to ascertain if the types of therapies reviewed can provide long term lasting effects in reducing PTSD symptomatology. Currently the empirical data is generally limited to the assessment of short term, focused interventions, and it would be helpful to have controlled studies on longer-term treatment for more complex trauma cases. Further research would benefit from considering the clients views and experiences of therapy, this perspective was lacking in the literature reviewed. Service user and carer perspectives are beyond the scope of this review, however they have been highlighted as an important consideration within the NICE guidelines and therefore require further consideration in future research. Conclusion There appear to be at least three treatments with excellent empirical support for treating PTSD; exposure therapy, cognitive therapy or a combination of these methods. These three approaches have excellent empirical support in well-controlled clinical trials, manifest strong treatment effect sizes, and appear to work well across diverse populations of trauma survivors. However future studies to examine the effectiveness of these approaches in clinic settings are warranted. There is much to be learned about the treatment of PTSD. It is certain there will be no simple answers for treating people who have experienced the most horrific events life offers. Undoubtedly, combinations of treatments as proposed by Keane et al. (1994) and Resick and Schnicke (1992) may prove to be the most powerful interventions. PTSD research in this area is only in the earliest stages of its development. Finally, an assumption about the uniformity of traumatic events has been made in the literature in general. Although it is reasonable to speculate that fundamental similarities exist among patients who have experienced diverse traumatic events and then develop PTSD, whether these patients will respond to clinical interventions in the same way is an empirical question that has yet to be addressed. Studies posing a question such as this would be a welcome addition to the clinical literature: Will people with PTSD resulting from combat, torture, genocide, and natural disasters all improve as well as those treated successfully following rape, motor vehicle accidents, and assaults? This is a crucial issue that requires additional scientific study in order to provide clinicians with the requisite evidence supporting the use of available techniques. Research on the prevalence of exposure to traumatic events and the prevalence of PTSD has mainly been carried out in the United States. Yet there are fundamental errors in assuming that these prevalence rates apply even to other Western, developed countries. Studies that examine the prevalence of PTSD and other disorders internationally are clearly warranted. Implicit in this recommendation is the need to examine the extent to which current assessment instrumentation is culturally sensitive to the ways in which traumatic reactions are expressed internationally. Much work on this topic will be required before definitive conclusions regarding prevalence rates of PTSD internationally can be drawn. Studies of the effectiveness of the psychological treatments across cultures and ethnic groups are also needed. What may be effective for Western populations may be inadequate or possibly even unacceptable treatment for people who reside in other areas of the world and who have different world views, beliefs, and perspectives. This issue will need to be more closely examined before we can draw definitive conclusions. It is suggested that despite the type of treatment provided to individuals with trauma there is ultimately a need for a flexible, integrative approach to treatment in order to deal with the complex and varying needs of individual trauma survivors. A range of outcomes has been found with the types of approaches outlined in this review, it is unclear who will respond best to which treatment approach. However, what is important in determining the success of any psychological treatment of PTSD is that it is dependent upon establishing and maintaining a therapeutic alliance that is strong enough for the client to experience as safe and trusting for positive emotional change to occur.

Mind, Intelligence and Spirit :: Psychology Philosophy Papers

Mind, Intelligence and Spirit The mind is a collection of various classes of processes that can be studied empirically. To limit the field of mental processes we must follow the criteria of folk psychology. There are three kinds of mind: human, animal and mechanical. But the human mind is the paradigm or model of mind. The existence of mechanical minds is a serious challenge to the materialism or the mind-brain identity theory. Based on this existence we can put forward the antimaterialist argument of machines. Intelligence is a class of mental processes such that the mind is the genus and the intelligence is a species of this genus. The capacity to solve problems is a clear and definite criterion of intelligence. Again, like in the mind, the human intelligence is the paradigm of the intelligence. There are also three kinds of intelligence: human, animal and mechanical. Searle’s Chinese room argument is misleading because Searle believes that it is possible to maintain a sharp distinction between syntax an d semantics. The reasonable dualism in the brain-mind problem defends the existence of brain-mental processes, physical-mental processes, and non-physical-mental (spiritual) processes. Constitution of the personal project of life, self-consciousness and free volitions are examples of spiritual processes. Usually the intelligence has been considered the most important quality of human beings, but freedom, or the world of free volitions, is a more specific quality of human beings. I. The Concept of Mind Contrary to a long philosophical tradition, it is very important to emphasize that the mind is not a "substance" or res . If the mind were a substance its study would be beyond the empiricist domain of science and would belong to the extraempiricist domain of metaphysics. On other hand, if the mind were a substance it would be something individual. Nevertheless the mind is a collection of various classes of processes that can be studied empirically. These processes are just the so-called "mental processes", in such a way that we can suggest the apparently vicious circle statement: mind is the collection of the different mental processes. In order to avoid the circularity of this statement we have to describe the various classes of mental processes. Using concepts taken from the information theory we can distinguish, in the beginning, four main types of mental processes: 1) perceptions, i. e. organized reception of information, 2) memories or storage of information, 3) beliefs, that is, judgements about the received information, and 4) plans, namely, arrangements of information to act.

An Essay on Tahitians and Europeans in the Voyage of Bougainville

The Voyage of Bougainville tells of a story about a voyage into the island of Tahiti which was led by Bougainville. His group wandered and stayed in this island for a period of time during which they were welcomed by its natives, Tahitians, with overwhelming hospitality, and a degree of trust, due to their innocence and ignorance of the ways and motives of Europeans. They offered them their women as a welcome gesture. Their stay, however, had manifested a great degree of difference in morals, customs, ways and beliefs between Tahitians and Europeans, and had irked the ire of their Chieftain.The differences between these cultures became even more evident through the discourse between Orou, a Tahitian, and the European Chaplain. It may be said that Tahitians lead a savage life, a way of life that is ‘near the origin of the world,’ whereas Europeans live in a society with a ‘complicated mechanism’ brought about by its advanced culture. Clearly, the difference i s remarkable to say the least. But Tahitians and Europeans, similarly, had beliefs, customs, and morals that they religiously followed however different they were.We shall discuss extensively their differences, and how they will be manifested and supported through an examination of their lifestyles, practices, customs, and beliefs. As Tahitians greatly held the law of nature as superior, the Europeans believe without a doubt, and with great conviction, that the law of God was absolute and supreme, above all else. They likewise held different views in how to live their lives, whereas Europeans were great achievers of material gains and human knowledge, Tahitians were happy with the basic necessities of life. They did not want anything more than what they needed.Perhaps, citizens of modern society would view the seemingly extreme beliefs and morals of Tahitians as barbaric, especially in their views towards sexual act, child bearing and the union between men and women. On the other ha nd, they regarded the beliefs and customs of Europeans as going against the ways of nature, illogical, and hypocritical. Tahitians viewed their women differently from that of familiar Europeans, including that of physical attributes in general. What may be important and beautiful to the modern world held no importance and were valueless in the eyes of the Tahitians.These points of differences merit point by point discussion, as well as their potential similarities. Basic vs. Excess Historically, Europeans have always gone to great lengths to widen its reach in land and territory; improved on skills and knowledge; increased its sources for food, among many reasons. In fact, they have traveled all over the globe, to lands yet unexplored in search for things that they thought they needed or wanted, that were not available in their native lands, or to lay claim on those lands that they found, whether or not these land have inhabitants.They strived hard and worked towards their worldly g oals in the hope that these will enrich their lives. These desires to explore, to know and to claim in excess of what they had, paved way for Europeans to acquire reaches and influence of great magnitude, perhaps, even having been instrumental in populating half the world. On the other hand, the Tahitians were content in their own part of the world, without a care to the goings on of the people in other parts of the globe.They were happy in their land and had no wish to explore and gain worldly possessions outside of what their native land could offer, their isolation had been instrumental in their innocence. However ignorant they may be of worldly knowledge, as they hold no importance to it, they were not desirous of it or in want of anything else. As the Tahitian chieftain has remarked upon Bougainville’s and his troop’s departure from Tahiti, Europeans brought over to their land was only chaos and confusion in return to their hospitality.They were certain that they would never barter their ignorance for the Europeans’ â€Å"useless† knowledge, as it would do them no good in their desire to remain grounded and maintain the basic necessities of life. To Tahitians, if a people has enough food to feed themselves, then they should not want for anything more, they gave utmost importance to their basic needs alone, all else were unimportant. They lived in order to be happy, and exerted effort only so slightly to provide their basic needs; in fact, they reduced work to the barest minimum, as much as possible, to enjoy more of life.However, the Chieftain of Tahiti was troubled by the Europeans as they brought with them customs and beliefs which inadvertently influenced his people to react differently regarding their traditional customs. In his mind, the European’s imaginary needs, that is, outside of their basic necessities, would only be cause for trouble to the simple Tahitians. Clearly, each side of the two widely different cult ures offer insight to their principles by which we could see that they bear virtues and reason, albeit, different ones.These two cultures were as far from each other as could ever be, but they were similarly obedient in their ways and customs. It was worth noting, though, that the Europeans seemed to be more receptive of the culture of Tahiti, contrary to the Tahitians who were more set in their beliefs. Based on the discourse between the Chaplain and Orou, the Tahitian native, the Chaplain had expressed understanding and desire to learn the reasons behind the other person’s culture, he showed some degree of acceptance of the other’s culture, as well.On the other hand, Orou expressed utter disbelief to European culture and strongly expressed that he could not understand the reason for their beliefs and customs. Exclusivity vs. Freedom In the eyes of an ordinary person, living in a regular, ordinary modern world, the ways, customs, beliefs and practices of Tahitians may be regarded as â€Å"immoral† and â€Å"barbaric† to say the least. It is important to note that Tahitians did not regard the act of sexual activity with any form of malice.What to Europeans was a topic of utmost sensitivity and acts done in a supremely private environment was to Tahitians an act done in perfect freedom and absence of restraints. For young men and women of Tahiti, losing their virginity was a part of the rite of passage to adulthood, when they reached the right age of procreation, they were publicly celebrated in a ceremony that were open for all to see. This custom must have been an amazing shock to the â€Å"morals† of the European visitors.After all, such a practice was unheard of especially in a society where openly talking about sexual activities was a taboo, and the act itself was regarded with malice. A public display of such an act as was normal to Tahitians must, to a certain degree, offended the sensibilities of the Europeans whose se xual activities were always kept behind closed doors. According to the Tahitian Chieftain, due to this crooked â€Å"morals† and belief, the foreigners had inadvertently planted the shadows of malice into the heads of young men and women, regarding sex.After their arrival, young men and women have started to â€Å"blush† and became â€Å"uncomfortable† about the ceremony of â€Å"losing their â€Å"virginity,† and in so doing have tainted the once pure and innocent source of their happiness. Moreover, Tahitians’ unique custom and hospitality involved offering their women – daughters and mothers alike – to male visitors, where they could take their pick from those â€Å"offered† to them in the household. Refusal to accept this offer of generosity and hospitality† was a serious affront to the family, especially to the man of the house.The Europeans must have found this arrangement uncomfortable, strange, but nevertheless w elcome, except for their Chaplain. Orou, who had taken in the Chaplain to his household as a guest for the duration of the Europeans’ visit, offered his wife as well as his three daughters to the visitor, much to his astonishment. He had never been this close to temptation, but he did his best to hold on to his beliefs. He repeatedly told them that he could not possibly take what he was being offered because of his religion and calling, to the disbelief and confusion of his host, Orou.He took it as an affront, not understanding the Chaplain’s religion and faith, and questioned him if he thought his (European) customs were better than theirs (Tahitian). However, the story did imply that the Chaplain succumbed to the â€Å"hospitality† of the household. In their conversation, Orou explained that in their land, the sexual act was without malice and was shared as a family, and learned that what Europeans term as incest and adultery were accepted as part of the custo ms.Moreover, sexual act was viewed as merely an end to procreate as compared to the European norm where the act as a form of pleasure and gratification, were as important as the purpose of procreation. And as such, the purpose of Orou’s offering his daughter to the Chaplain was to help bear a child. Tahitians regard sex mainly as a means to multiply or bear a child, for they equated riches with the number of brood they have in the household. Every new born was an addition to the household’s fortune and was therefore welcome.For Europeans, however, it was not uncommon to regard a child – although well loved – as an expense to the household rather than an additional fortune for they were considered as a source of expense for a long period of time before they could do service in return. Similarly in both cultures, the birth of a child was the occasion of domestic joy. As Europeans see the newborn with all its potential success in the future, Tahitians see in the child a farmer, a fisherman, a hunter, a soldier, a husband and the father. Childbearing was also a status symbol for women.Tahitian women of age who have not yet bore a child was often seen and treated as an inferior to those who already produced children. Therefore, it became the sole purpose of women of the right age, to bear children or procreate lest be considered as barren. Interestingly, while European culture view the union of man and woman as exclusive and the freedom to perform a sexual act commences after marriage, it was the complete opposite in Tahitian culture.For to them, the idea of a man and a woman belonging exclusively to each other for all of their lives was â€Å"opposed to nature and contrary to reason. They saw such exclusivity as going against the general law of existence and violated the freedom of men and women. It was senseless to confine pleasures to a single person, than to give them freedom to choose, for all things in their land belong to all of them. The Law of God vs. Law of Nature It might be safe to say that the root of the difference between the European and Tahitian cultures come mainly from their differences in beliefs and in the laws that they follow, and more importantly the source of those laws.To the Tahitians, the Law of Nature dictates their actions, customs, morals and beliefs. They do not go against what nature has allowed them to do and view it as the more logical and natural approach to life. Their beliefs dictated that Nature’s eternal will was to hold good over evil, and the public good is above the good for one individual. Orou learned from the Chaplain that although God forbids the sin of the flesh, He allowed them to do as they will, and viewed God as someone â€Å"who commands but is never obeyed; who can prevent but does not do so. He did not understand the concept of will power that God gave to human beings, which was fervently believed by the Europeans.Orou questioned the Chaplain furthermo re, whether the young men and women in his country never sleep together without permission; and if a woman who has been sworn to belong only to her husband, never give herself to another man, and vice versa? The Chaplain answered with the truth, that yes, they indeed happen. To this, Orou concluded, that Europeans are a bunch of hypocrites for they had beliefs and laws which they did not obey.The beliefs of these two different cultures both held their own merits, although the Tahitians’ beliefs were outrageous from the viewpoint of a European, or modern day person, it did have plenty of logical reasons behind it. They have maintained an unmoving and firm stance on their belief on the laws of nature, and maintained that such simplicity and attachment to nature was the more logical choice of action. Contrary to their simple and spartan beliefs on the laws of nature, Europeans held three codes with high regard, these were: the natural code, the civil code, and the religious.It c ould be said that not everyone abides by these codes, but Europeans strongly believed in their necessity to maintain peace and happiness. Women of Tahiti vs. Women of Europe In general, as society progresses, so do its taste/preference, viewpoint, and thinking improves. Even historically, Europe has always been at the helm of progress and culture, its women of classic and undeniable beauty. Europeans, as in most part of the world, are of opinion that physical beauty is equitable to brilliant complexion, broad forehead, large eyes, refined and delicate features, a slender waist, a small mouth, small hands and feet.On the other hand, Tahiti had a different standard of beauty, especially in its women. A woman who held promise of a large family was sought after and pursued by men, usually active, intelligent, brave, healthy and robust. A Tahitian woman to her fellow native woman, â€Å"You are beautiful but your children are ugly. I am ugly, but my children are beautiful, and I am the one the men prefer. † This clearly illustrated their standard of beauty and attractiveness. To them, beauty was more of personal qualities, than physical attributes.Again, the quality of childbearing ability was manifested in how they were seen by their fellow natives. Contrary to European women, Tahitian women retain the freedom to choose who they would like to live with, in a household, even after she has had a husband. While European women, like men, were bound by the laws and strict customs, Tahitian women, like their men, were free to separate from their previous marriage without the bindings of the law and disapproval of the society.In situations when the woman had existing children with her previous â€Å"relationship† she simply takes along her children, as dowry, to her new chosen household. In situations when there were multiple children, the parents simply divide among them equally. In Tahiti, barren women are treated as outcasts, simply put it would be hard for these women to be accepted in the society, and thus, attain happiness. Due to the importance that they attribute to child bearing capacity, Tahitian women who lack in the most essential proof of womanhood, became stigmatized by their society.More so because of this, men were not supposed to have sexual activities with them as nothing would be produced by such an action. Barren women even had to wear a black veil at all times to warn the men that they were not worth pursuing. A woman who removed this veil and mingled with men was considered as a loose woman, and the man who raises the veil and had relations with a barren woman was a libertine.In progressive Europe, although barrenness would create a big personal impact on the woman and her husband, t would not be a cause to be stigmatized and labeled by the society. Such simplicity could never be accepted by European women for they held their family dear and would never, in most cases, think of leaving their children behind. It c ould be safely said, though, that both kinds of women took good care of their husbands. Physical attributes Similarly to the standards of beauty of women, Tahitian men held different views of physical superiority, but not much different from that of European men.It can be safely assumed that people who were not favoured by nature could not be fully happy in Tahiti, but such situation is similar to European society where the beautiful and powerful command greater respect and attention. Similarly to Europeans, Tahitians place high regard to health, beauty, strength, industry and courage as well. However, they believe that their people are more healthy and robust than their European counterparts. They knew not any plague or sickness for their land had always been healthy, save for the diseases that were spread by the Europeans themselves.Admittedly, Tahitians believed that the Europeans were the more intelligent people, but they were healthier and stronger, and only old age could plagu e them, not diseases. Conclusion Certainly, Tahitians were very different from that of Europeans in every respect. There was a great degree of disagreement between them as to what culture, practices, beliefs and customs were superior. The following summarizes the observations and regard of Tahitians on the ways, beliefs, practices and customs of the Europeans: By the tyranny of man, who has turned the possession of a woman into the right of property;By manners and customs, which have overweighed the conjugal union with conditions; By civil laws, which have subjected marriage to an infinity of formalities; and by the nature of our society, in which the difference of rank and fortune have introduced the proper and improper. † The Tahitian beliefs and customs are completely opposite to every point in the above observation. Indeed, in their land, women held as much freedom as that of men in term of choosing their partners, and the freedom to so choose with whom she would like to l ive with.Although to a certain extent, they seemed to be as much as properties whenever they were being offered to visitors as a form of hospitality, it should be noted that these women believe and enjoy this practice. Meanwhile, the Europeans were indeed bound and overweighed by the conditions of their unions or marriage, as opposed to the Tahitians who could separate and change partners as they please, and only subject to the agreement between both parties. As they were not tied by any legal bindings, their culture allowed them to do as they please.However, in fairness to the Europeans in regard to the conditions of conjugal union, they would not want it differently as these conditions and formalities protect their relationship and cement their status in the society, as married couple. Unfortunately, society had indeed created a division between the rich and the poor, the powerful and the powerless, the popular and the obscure and other opposites of the spectrum. Meanwhile, the Ta hitians know not any division or segregation. Theirs is an example of a society that held equal regard for everyone, albeit, a â€Å"barbaric’ yet unpretentious society. An Essay on Tahitians and Europeans in the Voyage of Bougainville The Voyage of Bougainville tells of a story about a voyage into the island of Tahiti which was led by Bougainville. His group wandered and stayed in this island for a period of time during which they were welcomed by its natives, Tahitians, with overwhelming hospitality, and a degree of trust, due to their innocence and ignorance of the ways and motives of Europeans. They offered them their women as a welcome gesture. Their stay, however, had manifested a great degree of difference in morals, customs, ways and beliefs between Tahitians and Europeans, and had irked the ire of their Chieftain.The differences between these cultures became even more evident through the discourse between Orou, a Tahitian, and the European Chaplain. It may be said that Tahitians lead a savage life, a way of life that is ‘near the origin of the world,’ whereas Europeans live in a society with a ‘complicated mechanism’ brought about by its advanced culture. Clearly, the difference i s remarkable to say the least. But Tahitians and Europeans, similarly, had beliefs, customs, and morals that they religiously followed however different they were.We shall discuss extensively their differences, and how they will be manifested and supported through an examination of their lifestyles, practices, customs, and beliefs. As Tahitians greatly held the law of nature as superior, the Europeans believe without a doubt, and with great conviction, that the law of God was absolute and supreme, above all else. They likewise held different views in how to live their lives, whereas Europeans were great achievers of material gains and human knowledge, Tahitians were happy with the basic necessities of life. They did not want anything more than what they needed.Perhaps, citizens of modern society would view the seemingly extreme beliefs and morals of Tahitians as barbaric, especially in their views towards sexual act, child bearing and the union between men and women. On the other ha nd, they regarded the beliefs and customs of Europeans as going against the ways of nature, illogical, and hypocritical. Tahitians viewed their women differently from that of familiar Europeans, including that of physical attributes in general. What may be important and beautiful to the modern world held no importance and were valueless in the eyes of the Tahitians.These points of differences merit point by point discussion, as well as their potential similarities. Basic vs. Excess Historically, Europeans have always gone to great lengths to widen its reach in land and territory; improved on skills and knowledge; increased its sources for food, among many reasons. In fact, they have traveled all over the globe, to lands yet unexplored in search for things that they thought they needed or wanted, that were not available in their native lands, or to lay claim on those lands that they found, whether or not these land have inhabitants.They strived hard and worked towards their worldly g oals in the hope that these will enrich their lives. These desires to explore, to know and to claim in excess of what they had, paved way for Europeans to acquire reaches and influence of great magnitude, perhaps, even having been instrumental in populating half the world. On the other hand, the Tahitians were content in their own part of the world, without a care to the goings on of the people in other parts of the globe.They were happy in their land and had no wish to explore and gain worldly possessions outside of what their native land could offer, their isolation had been instrumental in their innocence. However ignorant they may be of worldly knowledge, as they hold no importance to it, they were not desirous of it or in want of anything else. As the Tahitian chieftain has remarked upon Bougainville’s and his troop’s departure from Tahiti, Europeans brought over to their land was only chaos and confusion in return to their hospitality.They were certain that they would never barter their ignorance for the Europeans’ â€Å"useless† knowledge, as it would do them no good in their desire to remain grounded and maintain the basic necessities of life. To Tahitians, if a people has enough food to feed themselves, then they should not want for anything more, they gave utmost importance to their basic needs alone, all else were unimportant. They lived in order to be happy, and exerted effort only so slightly to provide their basic needs; in fact, they reduced work to the barest minimum, as much as possible, to enjoy more of life.However, the Chieftain of Tahiti was troubled by the Europeans as they brought with them customs and beliefs which inadvertently influenced his people to react differently regarding their traditional customs. In his mind, the European’s imaginary needs, that is, outside of their basic necessities, would only be cause for trouble to the simple Tahitians. Clearly, each side of the two widely different cult ures offer insight to their principles by which we could see that they bear virtues and reason, albeit, different ones.These two cultures were as far from each other as could ever be, but they were similarly obedient in their ways and customs. It was worth noting, though, that the Europeans seemed to be more receptive of the culture of Tahiti, contrary to the Tahitians who were more set in their beliefs. Based on the discourse between the Chaplain and Orou, the Tahitian native, the Chaplain had expressed understanding and desire to learn the reasons behind the other person’s culture, he showed some degree of acceptance of the other’s culture, as well.On the other hand, Orou expressed utter disbelief to European culture and strongly expressed that he could not understand the reason for their beliefs and customs. Exclusivity vs. Freedom In the eyes of an ordinary person, living in a regular, ordinary modern world, the ways, customs, beliefs and practices of Tahitians may be regarded as â€Å"immoral† and â€Å"barbaric† to say the least. It is important to note that Tahitians did not regard the act of sexual activity with any form of malice.What to Europeans was a topic of utmost sensitivity and acts done in a supremely private environment was to Tahitians an act done in perfect freedom and absence of restraints. For young men and women of Tahiti, losing their virginity was a part of the rite of passage to adulthood, when they reached the right age of procreation, they were publicly celebrated in a ceremony that were open for all to see. This custom must have been an amazing shock to the â€Å"morals† of the European visitors.After all, such a practice was unheard of especially in a society where openly talking about sexual activities was a taboo, and the act itself was regarded with malice. A public display of such an act as was normal to Tahitians must, to a certain degree, offended the sensibilities of the Europeans whose se xual activities were always kept behind closed doors. According to the Tahitian Chieftain, due to this crooked â€Å"morals† and belief, the foreigners had inadvertently planted the shadows of malice into the heads of young men and women, regarding sex.After their arrival, young men and women have started to â€Å"blush† and became â€Å"uncomfortable† about the ceremony of â€Å"losing their â€Å"virginity,† and in so doing have tainted the once pure and innocent source of their happiness. Moreover, Tahitians’ unique custom and hospitality involved offering their women – daughters and mothers alike – to male visitors, where they could take their pick from those â€Å"offered† to them in the household. Refusal to accept this offer of generosity and hospitality† was a serious affront to the family, especially to the man of the house.The Europeans must have found this arrangement uncomfortable, strange, but nevertheless w elcome, except for their Chaplain. Orou, who had taken in the Chaplain to his household as a guest for the duration of the Europeans’ visit, offered his wife as well as his three daughters to the visitor, much to his astonishment. He had never been this close to temptation, but he did his best to hold on to his beliefs. He repeatedly told them that he could not possibly take what he was being offered because of his religion and calling, to the disbelief and confusion of his host, Orou.He took it as an affront, not understanding the Chaplain’s religion and faith, and questioned him if he thought his (European) customs were better than theirs (Tahitian). However, the story did imply that the Chaplain succumbed to the â€Å"hospitality† of the household. In their conversation, Orou explained that in their land, the sexual act was without malice and was shared as a family, and learned that what Europeans term as incest and adultery were accepted as part of the custo ms.Moreover, sexual act was viewed as merely an end to procreate as compared to the European norm where the act as a form of pleasure and gratification, were as important as the purpose of procreation. And as such, the purpose of Orou’s offering his daughter to the Chaplain was to help bear a child. Tahitians regard sex mainly as a means to multiply or bear a child, for they equated riches with the number of brood they have in the household. Every new born was an addition to the household’s fortune and was therefore welcome.For Europeans, however, it was not uncommon to regard a child – although well loved – as an expense to the household rather than an additional fortune for they were considered as a source of expense for a long period of time before they could do service in return. Similarly in both cultures, the birth of a child was the occasion of domestic joy. As Europeans see the newborn with all its potential success in the future, Tahitians see in the child a farmer, a fisherman, a hunter, a soldier, a husband and the father. Childbearing was also a status symbol for women.Tahitian women of age who have not yet bore a child was often seen and treated as an inferior to those who already produced children. Therefore, it became the sole purpose of women of the right age, to bear children or procreate lest be considered as barren. Interestingly, while European culture view the union of man and woman as exclusive and the freedom to perform a sexual act commences after marriage, it was the complete opposite in Tahitian culture. For to them, the idea of a man and a woman belonging exclusively to each other for all of their lives was â€Å"opposed to nature and contrary to reason.† They saw such exclusivity as going against the general law of existence and violated the freedom of men and women. It was senseless to confine pleasures to a single person, than to give them freedom to choose, for all things in their land belong to all of them. The Law of God vs. Law of Nature It might be safe to say that the root of the difference between the European and Tahitian cultures come mainly from their differences in beliefs and in the laws that they follow, and more importantly the source of those laws.To the Tahitians, the Law of Nature dictates their actions, customs, morals and beliefs. They do not go against what nature has allowed them to do and view it as the more logical and natural approach to life. Their beliefs dictated that Nature’s eternal will was to hold good over evil, and the public good is above the good for one individual. Orou learned from the Chaplain that although God forbids the sin of the flesh, He allowed them to do as they will, and viewed God as someone â€Å"who commands but is never obeyed; who can prevent but does not do so.† He did not understand the concept of will power that God gave to human beings, which was fervently believed by the Europeans. Orou questioned the Ch aplain furthermore, whether the young men and women in his country never sleep together without permission; and if a woman who has been sworn to belong only to her husband, never give herself to another man, and vice versa? The Chaplain answered with the truth, that yes, they indeed happen. To this, Orou concluded, that Europeans are a bunch of hypocrites for they had beliefs and laws which they did not obey.The beliefs of these two different cultures both held their own merits, although the Tahitians’ beliefs were outrageous from the viewpoint of a European, or modern day person, it did have plenty of logical reasons behind it. They have maintained an unmoving and firm stance on their belief on the laws of nature, and maintained that such simplicity and attachment to nature was the more logical choice of action. Contrary to their simple and spartan beliefs on the laws of nature, Europeans held three codes with high regard, these were: the natural code, the civil code, and th e religious.It could be said that not everyone abides by these codes, but Europeans strongly believed in their necessity to maintain peace and happiness. Women of Tahiti vs. Women of Europe In general, as society progresses, so do its taste/preference, viewpoint, and thinking improves. Even historically, Europe has always been at the helm of progress and culture, its women of classic and undeniable beauty. Europeans, as in most part of the world, are of opinion that physical beauty is equitable to brilliant complexion, broad forehead, large eyes, refined and delicate features, a slender waist, a small mouth, small hands and feet.On the other hand, Tahiti had a different standard of beauty, especially in its women. A woman who held promise of a large family was sought after and pursued by men, usually active, intelligent, brave, healthy and robust. A Tahitian woman to her fellow native woman, â€Å"You are beautiful but your children are ugly. I am ugly, but my children are beautifu l, and I am the one the men prefer. † This clearly illustrated their standard of beauty and attractiveness. To them, beauty was more of personal qualities, than physical attributes.Again, the quality of childbearing ability was manifested in how they were seen by their fellow natives. Contrary to European women, Tahitian women retain the freedom to choose who they would like to live with, in a household, even after she has had a husband. While European women, like men, were bound by the laws and strict customs, Tahitian women, like their men, were free to separate from their previous marriage without the bindings of the law and disapproval of the society.In situations when the woman had existing children with her previous â€Å"relationship† she simply takes along her children, as dowry, to her new chosen household. In situations when there were multiple children, the parents simply divide among them equally. In Tahiti, barren women are treated as outcasts, simply put i t would be hard for these women to be accepted in the society, and thus, attain happiness. Due to the importance that they attribute to child bearing capacity, Tahitian women who lack in the most essential proof of womanhood, became stigmatized by their society.More so because of this, men were not supposed to have sexual activities with them as nothing would be produced by such an action. Barren women even had to wear a black veil at all times to warn the men that they were not worth pursuing. A woman who removed this veil and mingled with men was considered as a loose woman, and the man who raises the veil and had relations with a barren woman was a libertine. In progressive Europe, although barrenness would create a big personal impact on the woman and her husband,it would not be a cause to be stigmatized and labeled by the society. Such simplicity could never be accepted by European women for they held their family dear and would never, in most cases, think of leaving their chil dren behind. It could be safely said, though, that both kinds of women took good care of their husbands. Physical attributes Similarly to the standards of beauty of women, Tahitian men held different views of physical superiority, but not much different from that of European men.It can be safely assumed that people who were not favoured by nature could not be fully happy in Tahiti, but such situation is similar to European society where the beautiful and powerful command greater respect and attention. Similarly to Europeans, Tahitians place high regard to health, beauty, strength, industry and courage as well. However, they believe that their people are more healthy and robust than their European counterparts. They knew not any plague or sickness for their land had always been healthy, save for the diseases that were spread by the Europeans themselves.Admittedly, Tahitians believed that the Europeans were the more intelligent people, but they were healthier and stronger, and only ol d age could plague them, not diseases. Conclusion Certainly, Tahitians were very different from that of Europeans in every respect. There was a great degree of disagreement between them as to what culture, practices, beliefs and customs were superior. The following summarizes the observations and regard of Tahitians on the ways, beliefs, practices and customs of the Europeans:â€Å"By the tyranny of man, who has turned the possession of a woman into the right of property; By manners and customs, which have overweighed the conjugal union with conditions; By civil laws, which have subjected marriage to an infinity of formalities; and by the nature of our society, in which the difference of rank and fortune have introduced the proper and improper. † The Tahitian beliefs and customs are completely opposite to every point in the above observation. Indeed, in their land, women held as much freedom as that of men in term of choosing their partners, and the freedom to so choose with whom she would like to live with.Although to a certain extent, they seemed to be as much as properties whenever they were being offered to visitors as a form of hospitality, it should be noted that these women believe and enjoy this practice. Meanwhile, the Europeans were indeed bound and overweighed by the conditions of their unions or marriage, as opposed to the Tahitians who could separate and change partners as they please, and only subject to the agreement between both parties. As they were not tied by any legal bindings, their culture allowed them to do as they please.However, in fairness to the Europeans in regard to the conditions of conjugal union, they would not want it differently as these conditions and formalities protect their relationship and cement their status in the society, as married couple. Unfortunately, society had indeed created a division between the rich and the poor, the powerful and the powerless, the popular and the obscure and other opposites of the spe ctrum. Meanwhile, the Tahitians know not any division or segregation. Theirs is an example of a society that held equal regard for everyone, albeit, a â€Å"barbaric’ yet unpretentious society.

Free Essays on “Porphyria’s Lover” Analysis

Robert Browning’s first dramatic monologue entitled, â€Å"Porphyria’s Lover† explores both psychological and mental states of its main character. It is told by a madman in the process of murdering his lover by strangling her with her own hair, which he does so that she can be his forever and will be in an eternal state of love. The title shows that the poem is about the main character’s lover Porphyria. Browning uses personification, actions of the characters, and the setting to define the speaker’s attitude. This brings us to the question: What is the meaning of this poem? In lines 2-4, it shows how the wind was soon awake, tore the elm-tops down for spite, and vexed the lake. The speaker is giving human like qualities to things of nature. How is this strange? A sane person can tell the difference between what is authentic or counterfeit, dead or alive; however, this character’s mental and psychological state is abnormal. You will see this further in the poem. The setting of the poem is also strange. A few details provide the setting: a stormy night, a cottage with a fireplace. It is also very gloomy, dark, and cold. What the speaker describes is nothing but negative thoughts from lines 1-8 where it says: The rain set early in to-night, The sullen wind was soon awake, It tore the elm-tops down for spite, And did its worst to vex the lake: I listen’d with heart fit to break. When glided in Porphyria; straight She shut the cold out and the storm, And kneeled and made the cheerless grate. Pelzer 2 This shows a sense of peculiarity because this type of weather is not suitable for anyone, but the speaker seems to be used to this life of dreariness and darkness. The actions of the characters also make the poem strange. When Porphyria is brought into the poem, she seemed to be calm and quiet. She takes off her wet clothing and gets comfortable. She whispers his name and says how much she loves ... Free Essays on â€Å"Porphyria’s Lover† Analysis Free Essays on â€Å"Porphyria’s Lover† Analysis Robert Browning’s first dramatic monologue entitled, â€Å"Porphyria’s Lover† explores both psychological and mental states of its main character. It is told by a madman in the process of murdering his lover by strangling her with her own hair, which he does so that she can be his forever and will be in an eternal state of love. The title shows that the poem is about the main character’s lover Porphyria. Browning uses personification, actions of the characters, and the setting to define the speaker’s attitude. This brings us to the question: What is the meaning of this poem? In lines 2-4, it shows how the wind was soon awake, tore the elm-tops down for spite, and vexed the lake. The speaker is giving human like qualities to things of nature. How is this strange? A sane person can tell the difference between what is authentic or counterfeit, dead or alive; however, this character’s mental and psychological state is abnormal. You will see this further in the poem. The setting of the poem is also strange. A few details provide the setting: a stormy night, a cottage with a fireplace. It is also very gloomy, dark, and cold. What the speaker describes is nothing but negative thoughts from lines 1-8 where it says: The rain set early in to-night, The sullen wind was soon awake, It tore the elm-tops down for spite, And did its worst to vex the lake: I listen’d with heart fit to break. When glided in Porphyria; straight She shut the cold out and the storm, And kneeled and made the cheerless grate. Pelzer 2 This shows a sense of peculiarity because this type of weather is not suitable for anyone, but the speaker seems to be used to this life of dreariness and darkness. The actions of the characters also make the poem strange. When Porphyria is brought into the poem, she seemed to be calm and quiet. She takes off her wet clothing and gets comfortable. She whispers his name and says how much she loves ...